Kristen

Ralph Waldo Emerson: “Gentlemen, gentlemen, do you either know what makes our country unique?”

Henry David Thoreau: “Hmm… I’m not sure Ralph, the fact that we fought for it and won the land?”

RWE: “No”

Amos Bronson Alcott: “Is it because Europeans live here and we are the most intelligent?”

RWE: “No, not really. What do we have here that others are jealous of?”

HDT: “Big cities?”

ABA: “How about the fact that we children can all go to school here and learn?”

RWE: “Kind of. Why did we want to come here in the first place?”

HDT: “To break away from the Anglican Church and practice our faith freely without anyone judging us.”

RWE: “And are we able to do that now?”

ABA: “Yes!”

RWE: “Exactly. The key word is freely. Our country is unique in the fact that we are Free. We have the freedom to make our own choices and to live our lives the way in which we wish.”

ABA: “Yes, and the fact that we are able to teach whatever we want and try new ways.”

RWE: “Yes. We should be thankful for our freedom.”

HDT: “Our freedom allows us to believe in whatever we want too.”

RWE: “You are right Henry. If we wish to learn from nature rather than scientific knowledge, we have every right to. We can learn so much from nature and our country allows us to explore those ideas that have yet to be discovered because of our freedom.”

HDT: “Our country allows us to use our own intuition to make decisions also. We are free in the fact that we have a self-governing government. We all have a say in our government and have the right of freedom of speech. Not many other countries can say that.”

ABA: “You’re right. Even if we chose to think differently or teach differently we can. People might not agree but that’s the beauty of freedom of speech.”

RWE: “Exactly Amos. We have every right to think whatever we wish. And what about women?”

HDT: “What about women?

RWE: “Well Henry, you might have not known this but women weren’t always allowed to do what they do now.”

HDT: “Hmmmmm?”

RWE: “Yes, Women now have more rights than they have ever had. Just the fact that they are able to work and have their writings published is remarkable.”

ABA: “Oh yes! If it wasn’t for my daughter and her brilliant story, “Little Women”, my family and I would still be struggling with financial problems.”

HDT: “Ah yes Amos, our country has many liberties that others do not. I think the most important thing is that we have the ability to believe in whatever we want and the ability to express those opinions in public freely.”

RWE: “Yes indeed. I believe all these things are great examples of the freedom that our country has. We need to thank God for our freedom and for being able to live in this beautiful country.”

All: “Thank you Lord for our freedom and for our land of the free.”

Student Author: Heather

Author Conversations

SCENE: We sit down at the yearly gathering which is referred to as the Dead Early Modern Writers Society. Many persons gather here to discuss their works again and again and eat a modest feast. Three men in particular sit down in the corner of the room to begin a conversation. These men are: Sir Thomas More, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare. Each man sits trying to prove he is better than the other. The waitress had just taken their orders and they are waiting for their meals. They are beginning a very heated conversation.

Three men in unison: Thank you, Ma’am.

More: Is this Utopia or what?

Spenser: Must you bring up your stories like that; can we not enjoy the meal?

More: I did not come back from the grave and had my head reattached for nothing.

Shakespeare (agitated): Well alright then, what have you found now about the book you wrote almost 500 years ago?

More: My book Utopia is a timeless classic, as you all know. I find that it is still important in the world today. Although it was written in contrast to England, it is very true in the modern day United States.

Spenser: Of course you think it is. I must say though, that my book, particularly the story about the Redcrosse Knight is also important. Redcrosse is a true hero, and people today still love stories about hero. He overcame the evil sourcer, killed the monster Error, and was still reunited with his love.

Shakespeare: You call that a hero?

Spenser: Yes, what do you call a hero?

Shakespeare: Well if you’re using that definition. Then I supposed that I am a hero as well.

Spenser: Because you died in a brawl? Nowadays, that’s considered foolish.

Shakespeare: I didn’t say I considered myself a hero. I simply used your definition.

Spenser: You little…

More: Gentlemen, gentlemen. Please, we mustn’t make fools of ourselves. After all, we’re some of the oldest, and therefore, more respected authors in the room. This is exactly what I wrote about in my book. Were Raphael Hythloday is the hero that I wrote about.

Shakespeare (under his breath): Not this again.

More: Hythloday presented ideas for a Utopian society. He tried to save people from becoming robbers, and beggars. And he tried to save them from the ultimate punishment of death.

Spenser: You mean you tried this.

More: Well in essence, yes it was me. You two know the purpose was my internal battle between law and being a monk.

Shakespeare: Yes, yes. We’ve been hearing this for the last 400 years. Do you have anything new to tell us about?

More: Well excuse me Mr. Every High School Student in America Reads about Me.

Shakespeare: Yes, they read about me, I supposed that is because I’m the best. Did I not write stories about love and heroes? Othello for example, he’s a great hero. He’s powerful and eloquent. What everyone thinks of when they think about heroes.

Spenser: Who actually reads Othello, doesn’t everyone read Romeo and Juliet. And by read I mean rent the movie?

Shakespeare: Can I really help it if America’s youth think that I wrote Romeo as Leonardo DiCarpio? But at least people have heard of my heroes. What can you two say about your heroes?

More: My hero was an idealist. He tried to better society and stop war. He was interested in the very nature of humans, a true philosopher. That is what should be a hero. Not some pretty boy who fights in armor.

Spenser: My hero, Redcrosse fought against good and evil. He overcame temptation by Archimago. He battled monsters and traveled across the wilderness. He was a Knight and was very powerful.

Shakespeare: I still believe that a hero needs to be respected. You gave your hero, Hythloday a name that means foolish.

More: It’s the pure contradiction that makes him a hero. Everyone around him considers him to be a fool, yet he is a hero.

Anonymous Student Post

Transcendentalism grew out of a realization that the world was changing, and not always for the better. Nowadays many people spend hours discussing the questions of our time, philosophizing over a cup of coffee. I decided to place the discussion of our writers in the modern era. What would they have said about our modern issues?

Thoreau (T) and Margaret Fuller (F) are sitting in a local Starburcks. It is evening and getting late when Ralph Emerson walks in. He grabs a coffee and sits down with T and F.

F: Welcome home – another long day at school?

E: Yes, though I sometimes feel like I am back at the Pulpit when I deliver a long lecture. Especially when some of the students are falling asleep on me. It seems like many of them have no interest in Natural Poetry 101” anymore, instead it seems many of them are simply enrolled to meet their graduation criteria, just to go on to their major classes in computer technology.

T: I agree completely, I cannot tell you how ridiculous it is that the Government has stepped in and decided what topics one must study. Why do all the computer people get stuck in Nature Poetry 101 every year?

F: Well, that’s the state run schools anyway. There is an awful lot mandated these days.

T: Is that why you turned down that position at Cedar Crest? I though you would have made an excellent dean. Then again Cedar Crest is a private institution; you may have had more flexibility.

F:No, I turned that down because though I agree equal education has been provided for the most part for women, I feel I cannot wholly agree with the idea o a woman’s only school. I mean, what kind of equality is it that we have reached? Women may acquire an education, but they must do so alone.

E: I agree, the flow of ideas must be passed along all peoples, not be confined to one sex. Both sexes together create such a wonderful exchange of thoughts.

F: Well, Emerson, you know I have often believed that only when together do men and women create a kind of harmony.

T: Well, at least you aren’t in my position in the public high schools. What a nightmare the government has made then, especially with the introduction of the No Child Left Behind Act. I mean, what are they thinking, stepping into educational studies like that, I mean, what do politicians understand about teaching. They should keep their noses in their pocketbooks where they belong.

E: I don’t know about that Thoreau. I firmly believe that all people, including students are individuals, and that being said they should learn according to their individual abilities. Now there are so many wonderful advances in teaching theory that accompanies that thought – the different types of learning. By knowing those you can tailor your learning to the students so they can all achieve.

F: I agree, I think that modern teaching has made great strides in recognizing the individual light in each person.

T: Well, that may be true but I still believe there is too much government involvement. I have never believed in corporal punishment, but some of these kids….

F: Now Thoreau…education has led to such wonderful ideas and inventions in the past few years. Why, it is even beginning to help the environment, which I know you must appreciate.

E: Yes Thoreau, even you must appreciate the sudden push in government for cleaner fuels, more green space and a cleaner world.

T: Well, I never could argue that, but I think more needs to be done, especially here in the valley. I mean, look at all the green space lost to home development in the last few years, it is just atrocious. All the cars, pollution must be up. I tell you the minute that hydrogen car comes out, I am buying one!

E: Now there is an idea I agree with. The less reliant America is to foreign oil and all the problems that come with it the better off we will be.

F: Hear, hear. The need for oil will only embroil us in conflicts. I can tell you one thing, conflicts only turn us away from our ability to know God as we should. I mean, how can one speak to him over all the volume of the world.

T: That reminds me, if you would like I would love to invite you all up to Walden for the weekend for some R&R. Oh, and I will be inviting Chapman too! We can eat the fresh vegetables and talk all night. Maybe we can even do some writing!

E: That sounds wonderful!

F: That sounds lovely.

Anthony Trinkle
Conversation Assignment

H= Henry David Thoreau
R= Ralph Waldo Emerson
L= Louisa May Alcott

H: Hi ! Ralph and Louisa, how are you doing today?

R: I am doing great old buddy, thanks for asking.

L: I have seen better times but I am hanging in there.

H: Ralph, how is Concord, Mass., holding up? Remember when we met there in 1841?

R: Yes, those where the good old days, I took you under my wing when you left Concord Academy.

H: You helped me through some troubled times, you are a good friend.

L: Both of you gentlemen are very kind to me and helped me with my writing, I owe a lot of gratitude to both of you. Coming from concord was not so bad after all; I never would have known you guys if it wasn’t for there.

R: How are the guys treating you Louisa?

L: They are fine. I do not want to get married. Freedom is to important to me. I will not have freedom if I get married. I rather live a private life by myself, here in concord.

R: Concord was a lovely place, but let us talk about this hot topic.

L+H: What topic it that?

R: FREEDOM

H: What a great topic to talk about. I have many ideas on freedom. As I am sure both of you do as well.

L: I have to fight for my freedom everyday being a woman. Neither of you know what that is like.

R: No, we can not say that we do.

L: Did you know that I was the first woman to vote in Concord, Massachusetts. I fought day after day for women’s freedom especially the right to vote. Women should be treated fairly just like men are.

H: I agree Louisa. Everyone should have every freedom that anyone else has.

R: Agreed

H: I am sure both of you have read my writing, Civil Disobedience. I speak about slavery and government and freedom. I disagree with a lot of what the government does. “The government is not just a little corrupt or unjust in the course of doing its otherwise-important work, but in fact, the government is primarily an agent of corruption and injustice. Because of this, it’s not too soon for honest men to rebel and revolutionize” (Civil Disobedience).

L: You have some good points there. So do you think the government is to blame for slavery and the civil war?

H: Yes, I do. The government is to blame. “What is the value of any political freedom, but as a means to moral freedom? Is it freedom to be slaves, or a freedom to be free, of which we boast? (Life Without Principle)

R: I think we are on the same path here. If you cannot be free be as free as you can be.
I do not think we should have slaves. I wrote about that in many of my works. How can we have slaves? How do they not deserve the same rights that we have?

L: That is how our government works. You can disagree with them all you want but that does not mean they are going to change their laws. We call our government a democracy but is it really? No, it is not. If it was a democracy we would not have slaves. Everyone would have the same freedoms, white, black, women and men.

H: We need to do something about our government. We do not need to abolish our government rather just improve it. I ask for, not at once no government, but at once a better government — the direction of this improvement aims at anarchism: That government is best which governs not at all; and when men are prepared for it, that will be the kind of government which they will have”. (Civil Disobedience)

R: So we need to improve our government and get them to change, not abolish it and start all over?

L: Yes, it will take to much time and work to start all over again. We have come to far to just get rid of it. We need to all work together and maybe one day we will all have the same freedoms.

H: I think you guys got my point. The two of you must have read “Civil Disobedience”.

R+L: Of course, we did.

After reading the biography of Anne Bradstreet, stop and pause and think about the woman she must have been. As we look at her poetry, think about the time in which she lived, her duties, and her role as a woman in the new world.

The first poem we explore is Here Follow Several Meditations

1

By night when others soundly slept,
And had at once both case and rest,
My waking eyes were open kept
And so to lie I found it best.

2

I sought Him whom my soul did love,
With tears I sought Him earnestly;
He bowed His ear down from above.
In vain I did not seek or cry.

3

My hungry soul He filled with good,
He in His bottle put my tears,
My smarting wounds washed in His blood,
And banished thence my doubts and fears.

4

What to my Savior shall I give,
Who freely hath done this for me?
I’ll serve Him here whilst I shall live
And love Him to eternity.

What are some themes that we should expect in her poetry? Is Bradstreet a feminist? Let’s look at another of her poems, In My Solitary Hours in my Dear Husband his Absence:

O Lord, Thou hear’st my daily moan
And see’st my dropping tears.
My troubles all are Thee before,
My longings and my fears.

Thou hitherto hast been my God;
Thy help my soul hath found.
Though loss and sickness me assailed,
Through Thee I’ve kept my ground.

And Thy abode Thou’st made with me;
With Thee my soul can talk;
In secret places Thee I find
Where I do kneel or walk.

Though husband dear be from me gone,
Whom I do love so well,
I have a more beloved one
Whose comforts far excel.

O stay my heart on Thee. my God,
Uphold my fainting soul.
And when I know not what to do,
I’ll on Thy mercies roll.

My weakness. Thou dost know full well
Of body and of mind;
I in this world no comfort have,
But what from Thee I find.

Though children Thou has given me,
And friends I have also,
Yet if I see Thee not through them
They are no joy, but woe.

O shine upon me, blessed Lord,
Ev’n for my Saviour’s sake;
In Thee alone is more than all,
And there content I’ll take.

O hear me, Lord, in this request
As Thou before hast done,
Bring back my husband, I beseech,
As Thou didst once my son.

So shall I celebrate Thy praise
Ev’n while my days shall last
And talk to my beloved one
Of all Thy goodness past.

So both of us Thy kindness, Lord,
With praises shall recount
And serve Thee better than before
Whose blessings thus surmount.

But give me, Lord, a better heart,
Then better shall I be,
To pay the vows which I do owe
Forever unto Thee.

Unless Thou help, what can I do
But still my frailty show?
If Thou assist me, Lord,
I shall Return Thee what I owe.

the poetry of Anne Bradstreet survives and is canonized because someone felt it necessary. HOW did she become part of the canon? Be prepared to know the answer to THAT question!

While we won’t do this for every text, I think it is helpful to hear some of the language of the periods as we begin to form this mound of clay into something now called American. As you listen, think about the questions I pose. We will be discussing these questions in Second Life (or you will respond to them in email).

I think it is essential to start with a discussion of what the settlers were like because I think it gives us a framework to discuss the poor treatment of the Native Americans and the roots of a national literature.

Let’s Begin with William Bradford’s Chapter 9 of Of Plimouth Plantation.

September 6. These troubles being blown over, and now all being compact together in one ship, they put to sea again with a prosperous wind, which continued divers days together, which was some encouragement unto them; yet according to the usual manner many were afflicted with sea sickness. And I may not omit here a special work of God’s providence. There was a proud and very profane young man, one of the sea-men, of a lusty, able body, which made him the more haughty; he would always be condemning the poor people in their sickness, and cursing them daily with grievous execrations, and did not let to tell them, that he hoped to help to cast half of them overboard before they came to their journey’s end, and to make merry with what they had; and if he were by any gently reproved, he would curse and swear most bitterly. But it pleased God before they came half seas over, to smite this young man with a grievous disease, of which he died in a desperate manner, and so was himself the first that was thrown overboard. Thus his curses light on his own head; and it was an astonishment to all his fellows, for they noted it to be the just hand of God upon him.

Let’s talk a little bit about this passage. I have bolded the sentences that are crucial to understanding the Puritan spirit. The language used to discuss the nature of God suggests that God “smites” and is ‘just.’ This man was punished for his sins of cruelty, and the irony is that he was the first to die. We will see the theme of the nature of God in various texts of this period. What is the nature of God in these writings? How does that nature differ from how He is viewed today? What does this nature have to do with the treatment of Native Americans?

Let’s move to the second section.

After they had enjoyed fair winds and weather for a season, they were encountered many times with cross winds, and met with many fierce storms, with which the ship was shroudly shaken, and her upper works made very leaky; and one of the main beams in the mid ships was bowed and cracked, which put them in some fear that the ship could not be able to perform the voyage. So some of the chief of the company, perceiving the mariners to fear the sufficiency of the ship, as appeared by their mutterings, they entered into serious consultation with the master and other officers of the ship, to consider in time of the danger; and rather to return then to cast themselves into a desperate and inevitable peril. And truly there was great distraction and difference of opinion among the mariners themselves; fain would they do what could be done for their wages sake, (being now half the seas over,) and on the other hand they were loath to hazard their lives too desperately. But in examining of all opinions, the master and others affirmed they knew the ship to be strong and firm under water; and for the buckling of the main beam, there was a great iron screw the passengers brought out of Holland, which would raise the beam into his place; the which being done, the carpenter and master affirmed that with a post put under it, set firm in the lower deck, and other-ways bound, he would make it sufficient. And as for the decks and upper works they would caulk them as well as they could, and though with the working of the ship they would not long keep staunch, yet there would otherwise be no great danger, if they did not overpress her with sails. So they committed themselves to the will of God, and resolved to proceed. In sundry of these storms the winds were so fierce, and the seas so high, as they could not bear a knot of sail, but were forced to hull, for divers days together. And in one of them, as they thus lay at hull, in a mighty storm, a lusty young man (called John Howland) coming upon some occasion above the gratings, was, with a seele of the ship thrown into the sea; but it pleased God that he caught hold of the topsail halyards, which hung overboard, and ran out at length; yet he held his hold (though he was sundry fathoms under water) till he was hauled up by the same rope to the brim of the water, and then with a boat hook and other means got into the ship again, and his life saved; and though he was something ill with it, yet he lived many years after, and became a profitable member both in church and commonwealth. In all this voyage there died but one of the passengers, which was William Butten, a youth, servant to Samuel Fuller, when they drew near the coast. But to omit other things, (that I may be brief,) after long beating at sea they fell with that land which is called Cape Cod; the which being made and certainly known to be it, they were not a little joyful. After some deliberation had amongst themselves and with the master of the ship, they tacked about and resolved to stand for the southward (the wind and weather being fair) to find some place about Hudson’s River for their habitation. But after they had sailed that course about half a day, they fell amongst dangerous shoals and roaring breakers, and they were so far entangled therewith as they conceived themselves in great danger; and the wind shrinking upon them withal, they resolved to bear up again for the Cape, and thought themselves happy to get out of those dangers before night overtook them, as by God’s providence they did. And the next day they got into the Cape-harbor where they rid in safety. A word or two by the way of this cape; it was thus first named by Captain Gosnold and his company, Anno. 1602, and after by Captain Smith was called Cape James; but it retains the former name amongst seamen. Also that point which first showed these dangerous shoals unto them, they called Point Care, and Tucker’s Terror; but the French and Dutch to this day call it Malabar, by reason of those perilous shoals, and the losses they have suffered there.

Why is there so much detail here? Can we trust the writer? Why or why not? Again, what is the nature of God as portayed in this passage?

Let’s explore the final section:

Being thus arrived in a good harbor and brought safe to land, they fell upon their knees and blessed the God of heaven, who had brought them over the vast and furious ocean, and delivered them from all the perils and miseries thereof, again to set their feet on the firm and stable earth, their proper element. And no marvel if they were thus joyful, seeing wise Seneca was so affected with sailing a few miles on the coast of his own Italy; as he affirmed, that he had rather remain twenty years on his way by land, then pass by sea to any place in a short time; so tedious and dreadful was the same unto him.

But here I cannot but stay and make a pause, and stand half amazed at this poor people’s present condition; and so I think will the reader too, when he well considers the same. Being thus passed the vast ocean, and a sea of troubles before in their preparation (as may be remembered by that which went before), they had now no friends to welcome them, nor inns to entertain or refresh their weather-beaten bodies, no houses or much less towns to repair to, to seek for succor. It is recorded in scripture as a mercy to the apostle and his shipwrecked company, that the barbarians showed no small kindness in refreshing them, but these savage barbarians, when they met with them (as after will appear) were readier to fill their sides full of arrows then otherwise. And for the season it was winter, and they that know the winters of that country know them to be sharp and violent and subject to cruel and fierce storms, dangerous to travel to known places, much more to search an unknown coast. Besides, what could they see but a hideous and desolate wilderness, full of wild beasts and wild men? and what multitudes there might be of them they knew not. Neither could they, as it were, go up to the top of Pigsah, to view from this wilderness a more goodly country to feed their hopes; for which way soever they turned their eyes (save upward to the heavens) they could have little solace or content in respect of any outward objects. For summer being done, all things stand upon them with a weather-beaten face; and the whole country, full of woods and thickets, represented a wild and savage hew. If they looked behind them, there was the mighty ocean which they had passed, and was now as a main bar and gulf to separate them from all the civil parts of the world. If it be said they had a ship to succor them, it is true; but what heard they daily from the master and company? But that with speed they should look out a place with their shallop, where they would be at some near distance; for the season was such as he would not stir from thence till a safe harbor was discovered by them where they would be, and he might go without danger; and that victuals consumed apace, but he must and would keep sufficient for themselves and their return. Yea, it was muttered by some, that if they got not a place in time, they would turn them and their goods ashore and leave them. Let it also be considered what weak hopes of supply and succor they left behind them, that might bear up their minds in this sad condition and trials they were under; and they could not but be very small. It is true, indeed, the affections and love of their brethren at Leyden was cordial and entire towards them, but they had little power to help them, or themselves; and how the case stood between them and the merchants at their coming away, hath already been declared. What could now sustain them but the spirit of God and his grace?

May not and ought not the children of these fathers rightly say: Our fathers were Englishmen which came over this great ocean, and were ready to perish in this wilderness; but they cried unto the Lord, and he heard their voice, and looked on their adversity, etc. Let them therefore praise the Lord, because he is good, and his mercies endure forever. Yea, let them which have been redeemed of the Lord, show how he hath delivered them from the hand of the oppressor. When they wandered in the desert wilderness out of the way, and found no city to dwell in, both hungry, and thirsty, their soul was overwhelmed in them. Let them confess before the Lord his loving kindness, and his wonderful works before the sons of men.

What does this passage say about the roots of the American tradition? What applies to the treatment of Native Americans?

What is a national literature? That is the question we will focus on in American Literature I.

As we learn about the foundations and roots of American literature, we will discover that much of our tradition is borrowed from other cultures. Our own identity as a national literature doesn’t surface until after the American Civil War.

Certainly, a course in American Literature will focus on all of the appropriate time periods. In American Literature I we generally start with the Puritans, move on to the Age of Reason, hop over to the Romantic period, glide on over to the Transcendentalists, and then move toward the subject matter of American Literature II (Realism, Naturalism, Early 20th C, Modernism, American Drama, Harlem Renaissance, Late 20th C, and Post-Modernism).

Sadly, the canon is only just recognizing the national literature of the time before - - the time before the Puritans. The peoples of the American continent had a tradition; they used the oral tradition. It is here, in the stories of the Native Americans, where we will begin our journey.

We will begin by looking at the work of Paul Reuben. I would like for you to read this overview and bibliography. I am reprinting it below for those of you who might like to hear it, as well.

Citation: Reuben, Paul P. “Chapter 1: Early American Literature to1700 - Native American Oral Literatures.” PAL: Perspectives in American Literature- A Research and Reference Guide. WWW URL: http://web.csustan.edu/english/reuben/pal/chap1/native.html (April 30, 2007).

Andrew Wiget is a distinguished scholar in this field - note the bibliographical entries below. Here are some of his comments:

Culture is a system of beliefs and values through which a group of people structure their experience of the world. By working with this definition of culture, which is very close to the way current criticism understands the impact of ideology upon literature, we can begin to pluralize our notion of the world and understand that other peoples can organize their experience in different ways, and dramatize their experience of the world through different symbolic forms.

If culture is a system of beliefs and values by which people organize their experience of the world, then it follows that forms of expressive culture such as these (creation) myths should embody the basic beliefs and values of the people who create them. These beliefs and values can be roughly organized in three areas: (1) beliefs about the nature of the physical world; (2) beliefs about social order and appropriate behavior; and (3) beliefs about human nature and the problem of good and evil.

Both the Zuni story and the Iroquoian story of the origins of the confederacy also talk about how society should be organized, about the importance of kinship and families, about how society divides its many functions in order to provide for healing, for food, for decision making, and so on. The Iroquoian confederacy was a model of Federalism for the drafters of the Constitution, who were much impressed by the way in which the confederacy managed to preserve the autonomy of its individual member tribes while being able to manage effective concerted actions, as the colonists to their dismay too often found out. The Navajo story of Changing Woman and the Lakota story of White Buffalo Calf Pipe Woman are important illustrations not only of the role of women as culture heroes, but also of every people’s necessity to evolve structures such as the Pipe Ceremony or the Navajo healing rituals to restore and maintain order in the world.

The Raven and Hare narratives are stories about a Trickster figure. Tricksters are the opposite of culture heroes. Culture heroes exist in mythology to dramatize prototypical events and behaviors; they show us how to do what is right and how we became the people who we are. Tricksters, on the other hand, provide for disorder and change; they enable us to see the seamy underside of life and remind us that culture, finally, is artificial, that there is no necessary reason why things must be the way they are. If there is sufficient motivation to change things, Trickster provides for the possibility of such change, most often by showing us the danger of believing too sincerely that this arbitrary arrangement we call culture is the way things really are. When Raven cures the girl, for instance, he does so to gain her sexual favors, and in so doing calls into question the not-always-warranted trust that people place in healing figures like doctors. The Bungling Host story, widespread throughout Native America, humorously illustrates the perils of overreaching the limits of one’s identity while trying to ingratiate one’s self.

Perhaps the most important thing that needs to be done is to challenge students’ notions of myth. When students hear the word “myth,” they succumb to the popular belief that mythology is necessarily something that is false. This is a good place to start a discussion about truth, inviting students to consider that there are other kinds of truth besides scientific truth (which is what gave a bad name to mythology in the first place). Consider this definition of myth: “The dramatic representation of culturally important truths in narrative form.” Such a definition highlights the fact that myths represent or dramatize shared visions of the world for the people who hold them. Myths articulate the fundamental truths about the shape of the universe and the nature of humanity.

It is also important to look at important issues of form such as repetition. Repetition strikes many students as boring. Repetition, however, is an aesthetic device that can be used to create expectation. Consider the number three and how several aspects of our Euro-American experience are organized in terms of three: the start of a race (”on your mark, get set, go”); three sizes (small, medium, and large); the three colors of a traffic signal; and of course, three little pigs. These are all commonplace examples, so commonplace, in fact, that initially most students don’t think much of them. But there is no reason why we should begin things by counting to three. We could count to four or five or seven, as respectively the Zunis, the Chinooks, and the Hebrews did. In other words, these repetitions have an aesthetic function: they create a sense of expectation, and when one arrives at the full number of repetitions, a sense of completeness, satisfaction, and fulfillment.